Cosmetic Procedures & Body Modification

Body modification (or body alteration) is the deliberate altering of the human body for aesthetic or non-medical purpose, such as sexual enhancement, a rite of passage, denoting affiliation, trust and loyalty, religious reasons, shock value, and self-expression. It can range from the socially acceptable decoration (e.g., pierced ears in many societies) to the religiously mandated (e.g., circumcision in a number of cultures), and everywhere in between. Body art is the modification of any part of the human body for spiritual, religious, artistic or aesthetic reasons.

Beauty and Body Modification

Since ancient times, human beings have attempted to modify their physical appearances to conform to cultural ideals of beauty. Many characteristics of human appearance are also considered to be evolutionary adaptations for survival of the human species. Beauty, size, and muscularity advertise one's health and fertility. The ancient Greek ideal equated symmetry with beauty,

And more recent scientific studies have shown that symmetry is still valued in both male and female faces. The "ideal woman" is said to have a small chin, delicate jaws, full lips, a small nose, high cheek bones, large and widely spaced eyes, and a waist-to-hip ratio of 0.7. The "ideal man" is taller, with a waist-to-hip ratio of 0.9, and rugged features such as a dominant, rectangular face and chin; deep-set eyes; and a heavy brow, suggesting a strong supply of testosterone. As Christine Rosen points out, physical appearance has also been linked to moral worth. Those considered good-looking are more likely to get married, be hired, get paid more, and be promoted sooner. Height is associated with income and leadership positions. Strangers are more likely to assist good-looking people in distress. The pretty/handsome are less likely to be reported, caught, accused, or punished for minor and major crimes. On the other hand, attractiveness is recognized as a special gift, and its misuse is not easily tolerated.

Today, women and men of many cultures diet, exercise, apply cosmetics, and undergo a bewildering array of surgical procedures to achieve a desired look. Yet, many techniques of body manipulation have had profound health effects on the individuals practicing them. Moreover, some have been cultural practices designed to control the female sex, even when willingly accepted by women. Others, such as female genital mutilation, again often accepted by women, involve the abrogation of women's right to bodily integrity and sexual fulfillment.

Most interventions have been practiced by women, rather than men, who, as a result of their more privileged position in society, have been able to rely more upon their intellectual, political, and military feats to achieve respectability and to woo prospective mates. Ageism has also historically disproportionately discriminated against women. Whereas older men have been seen as distinguished and sophisticated, women who have completed their childbearing years are more often considered "past their prime" and older women have been the greatest consumers of cosmetic procedures. However, this is changing in American culture particularly, in which "youthfulness" dominates the popular cultural discourse on beauty, and older men comprise an increasingly larger proportion of the cosmetic surgery market.

"Youthfulness is a...desirable commodity, as Americans in the corporate world are learning. A February 2004 report in the Wall Street Journal described a recent survey by ExecuNet that asked senior-level corporate executives about attitudes toward aging. The result found that "82 percent consider age bias a 'serious problem,' up from 78 percent three years ago. And 94 percent of these respondents, who were mostly in their 40s and 50s, said they thought age 'had cost them a shot at a particular job.' Many executives -- male and female -- are turning to cosmetic surgery to help them stay competitive.

This article takes a brief historical look at some of the modifications people (mostly women) have undertaken to try to achieve particular ideals of beauty, and then focuses on some currently fashionable modifications -- namely cosmetics, tanning, body piercing, and botulinum toxin (BOTOX) and dermal fillers. Future articles will consider cosmetic surgery and female genital mutilation.

Cosmetic Procedures

Procedures developed to make the skin look more youthful are called cosmetic procedures.

Many dermatologists perform cosmetic procedures. The medical training these doctors receive makes them uniquely qualified to evaluate the skin and determine which cosmetic procedures can safely and effectively diminish your signs of aging.

Hair Restoration

Cosmetic procedures that can be used to restore hair and give patients a more youthful appearance are:

• Hair transplantation – Skin on the scalp that has good hair growth is removed and transplanted to an area(s) of the scalp that needs hair.
• Scalp reduction – Bald scalp is surgically removed and hair-bearing scalp is brought closer together to reduce balding.
• Scalp expansion – Devices are inserted under the scalp for about 3 to 4 weeks to stretch the skin. This procedure may be performed before a scalp reduction to make the scalp more lax or simply to stretch hair-bearing areas, which reduces balding.
• Scalp flaps – A hair-bearing section of the scalp is moved to an area where hair is needed.

The hair transplant is probably the best known and most widely used hair-restoration procedure. While many have heard of a hair transplant, it seems that people often do not know that this procedure has come a long way since the days of the hair plug.

With improved techniques such as the single-hair graft, micro-graft, and mini-graft, it is possible for dermatologists to create a hairline and hair density that look completely natural. Many patients who underwent a hair transplant in the 1990s have such natural-looking results that even a hair stylist cannot tell the procedure was performed.

Signs of Aging Treated
Hair transplantation is used to treat:

• Hereditary hair loss (also called androgenetic alopecia) in men and women
   
• Hair loss due to aging (also called senescent alopecia) in women

Hair transplantation also may be used to treat other causes of hair loss, including a burn. Regardless of the reason for the hair loss, this procedure is usually not performed until the person is at least 25 years of age.

Scalp reduction, scalp expansion, and scalp flaps tend to be limited to treating men who have balding on the scalp.

Skin Tightening

Several non-invasive devices can tighten the skin. While these devices do not deliver the results of a surgical lifting procedure such as a facelift, they can produce mild to modest tightening by sending heat deep into the skin. The heat causes some immediate tissue tightening and signals the body to start making new collagen. As the new collagen forms, skin may appear firmer and tighter. There is virtually no downtime.

Technologies used for this non-invasive skin tightening include:

• Infrared laser
• Pulsed infrared light
• Radiofrequency

Signs of Aging Treated
Different devices are used to tighten skin on virtually every area of the body. Most people choose non-invasive skin tightening to:

• Firm forehead and cheeks
• Lift the eyebrows
• Tighten jowls and neck
• Reduce wrinkles around the eyes
• Diminish the appearance of cellulite
• Tighten skin on the abdomen, buttocks, arms, and thighs